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.7The hierarchy of arguments, on the other hand, is lexically based, that is,each verb determines the number, type and basic order of the phrases it Questions of order 35accepts as its arguments.8 Some patterns occur very often and are seen asprototypical.For example, in most cases the subject is the highest argumentof a verb with several arguments.While objects and predicates extend theverb into a verb phrase, subjects extend the verb phrase into a sentence.Withcertain verbs, however, as for example stehen, the subject is considered theclosest argument of the verb.If we take all of this together, we can classify the prepositional object aufOrdnung in Raum und Zeit in:Gestalt beruht auf Ordnung in Raum und Zeit.as closer to the verb than the subject Gestalt, but the subject Gestaltbildungin the German original:Am Anfang steht die Gestaltbildung.as closer to the verb than the adverbial.Identifying the structural focus is not yet the end of the story.We still haveto integrate the result of our formal analysis into the discourse the sentencebelongs to.This may require an extension of the focus onto more elements or in case of a mismatch reanalysis.Let us take a look at these cases ofcontextual adaptation.Focus projectionGestaltbildung is a word, though a complex one; the emergence of form is aphrase.Die Gestaltbildung is also a phrase.If a phrase contains the focusexponent, which of its elements is it? As function words, like articles, arenormally unstressed, there is not much to choose from in the case of dieGestaltbildung.The focus exponent is the lexical element of the phrase, thenoun: die GESTALTBILDUNG.But what about the phrase: the emergence ofform?Following the idea that the focus exponent is mostly the element that isgiven the main stress in the sentence, linguists suggest going by stress rule.Itis the last stressable lexical element in a phrase that receives the main stress inthe phrase.Thus we get the emergence of FORM.But this is definitely not thefocus we think of when we look at the entire example in its context.Even if,for the moment, we ignore the apparent paradox that the focus exponent is agiven element, we would want the focus to cover, at least, the whole phrase,the emergence of form.This is where the concept of focus projection comes in.The focus feature isprojected onto a larger part of the sentence; the extension of the projection isguided by structural constituency limited by contextual givenness.To a certain extent, givenness can be read off from definite articles, as wesaid.But unique concepts, like die Schöpfung, are used with a definite article 36 Questions of orderalso if they are not contextually given.Thus, the criterion is not very reliableand we do have to look at the context itself.The context of our first exampleis nothing but the title of the section introduced by this sentence.While itcontains Gestalt (which is rendered as form), it does not contain any of theother elements of the sentence.We therefore have to conclude that the focusprojection extends over the whole sentence:[Am Anfang der Schöpfung steht die GESTALTBILDUNG].We could also assume that Schöpfung/creation is a concept we are allfamiliar with, which may well have been the reason for the authors to chooseit as their starting point.But the concept is certainly not present in our mindswhen we read the sentence.I will therefore consider it part of the focusprojection, to be distinguished from the rest by its status as topic:[[TopicCreation] began with the emergence of FORM]The German original would be quite similar:[[TopicAm Anfang der Schöpfung] steht die GESTALTBILDUNG].If we analyse our last example, the result is different.The last stressableelement is the noun: Zeit in German or space in English.But coordinationsrelate phrases with similar properties, so I will assume the focus exponent tobe identical with both conjuncts: RAUM und ZEIT; TIME and SPACE.(Thedifferent order of the conjuncts is an intricate problem, which I will ignorefor the sake of simplicity.)What about focus projection? A look at the context tells us that Gestalt/form is given, but so is Raum und Zeit, time and space.The precedingsentence is:From this formlessness emerge the structures of time and space: light anddarkness, day and night, heaven and earth, land and sea.(EW 1983b: 69)Thus, we have to assume that the focus projection excludes the structuralfocus exponent, shifting the focus onto the next focusable element:Gestalt [beruht auf ORDNUNG] in Raum und Zeit.Form [is a product of ORDER] in time and space.That is, the context tells us to defocus the structural focus (whether this hasany effect on the prosodic focus structure is an open question); structural andcontextual focus do not coincide.We have to reanalyse the sentence when Questions of order 37integrating its information structure into the preceding context.This is aprocessing disadvantage which can hardly be avoided.But as we have verymuch the same situation in both languages, this need not bother us too much.Focusing elementsThere is one more formal aspect of the last example we should make a noteof [ Pobierz caÅ‚ość w formacie PDF ]
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.7The hierarchy of arguments, on the other hand, is lexically based, that is,each verb determines the number, type and basic order of the phrases it Questions of order 35accepts as its arguments.8 Some patterns occur very often and are seen asprototypical.For example, in most cases the subject is the highest argumentof a verb with several arguments.While objects and predicates extend theverb into a verb phrase, subjects extend the verb phrase into a sentence.Withcertain verbs, however, as for example stehen, the subject is considered theclosest argument of the verb.If we take all of this together, we can classify the prepositional object aufOrdnung in Raum und Zeit in:Gestalt beruht auf Ordnung in Raum und Zeit.as closer to the verb than the subject Gestalt, but the subject Gestaltbildungin the German original:Am Anfang steht die Gestaltbildung.as closer to the verb than the adverbial.Identifying the structural focus is not yet the end of the story.We still haveto integrate the result of our formal analysis into the discourse the sentencebelongs to.This may require an extension of the focus onto more elements or in case of a mismatch reanalysis.Let us take a look at these cases ofcontextual adaptation.Focus projectionGestaltbildung is a word, though a complex one; the emergence of form is aphrase.Die Gestaltbildung is also a phrase.If a phrase contains the focusexponent, which of its elements is it? As function words, like articles, arenormally unstressed, there is not much to choose from in the case of dieGestaltbildung.The focus exponent is the lexical element of the phrase, thenoun: die GESTALTBILDUNG.But what about the phrase: the emergence ofform?Following the idea that the focus exponent is mostly the element that isgiven the main stress in the sentence, linguists suggest going by stress rule.Itis the last stressable lexical element in a phrase that receives the main stress inthe phrase.Thus we get the emergence of FORM.But this is definitely not thefocus we think of when we look at the entire example in its context.Even if,for the moment, we ignore the apparent paradox that the focus exponent is agiven element, we would want the focus to cover, at least, the whole phrase,the emergence of form.This is where the concept of focus projection comes in.The focus feature isprojected onto a larger part of the sentence; the extension of the projection isguided by structural constituency limited by contextual givenness.To a certain extent, givenness can be read off from definite articles, as wesaid.But unique concepts, like die Schöpfung, are used with a definite article 36 Questions of orderalso if they are not contextually given.Thus, the criterion is not very reliableand we do have to look at the context itself.The context of our first exampleis nothing but the title of the section introduced by this sentence.While itcontains Gestalt (which is rendered as form), it does not contain any of theother elements of the sentence.We therefore have to conclude that the focusprojection extends over the whole sentence:[Am Anfang der Schöpfung steht die GESTALTBILDUNG].We could also assume that Schöpfung/creation is a concept we are allfamiliar with, which may well have been the reason for the authors to chooseit as their starting point.But the concept is certainly not present in our mindswhen we read the sentence.I will therefore consider it part of the focusprojection, to be distinguished from the rest by its status as topic:[[TopicCreation] began with the emergence of FORM]The German original would be quite similar:[[TopicAm Anfang der Schöpfung] steht die GESTALTBILDUNG].If we analyse our last example, the result is different.The last stressableelement is the noun: Zeit in German or space in English.But coordinationsrelate phrases with similar properties, so I will assume the focus exponent tobe identical with both conjuncts: RAUM und ZEIT; TIME and SPACE.(Thedifferent order of the conjuncts is an intricate problem, which I will ignorefor the sake of simplicity.)What about focus projection? A look at the context tells us that Gestalt/form is given, but so is Raum und Zeit, time and space.The precedingsentence is:From this formlessness emerge the structures of time and space: light anddarkness, day and night, heaven and earth, land and sea.(EW 1983b: 69)Thus, we have to assume that the focus projection excludes the structuralfocus exponent, shifting the focus onto the next focusable element:Gestalt [beruht auf ORDNUNG] in Raum und Zeit.Form [is a product of ORDER] in time and space.That is, the context tells us to defocus the structural focus (whether this hasany effect on the prosodic focus structure is an open question); structural andcontextual focus do not coincide.We have to reanalyse the sentence when Questions of order 37integrating its information structure into the preceding context.This is aprocessing disadvantage which can hardly be avoided.But as we have verymuch the same situation in both languages, this need not bother us too much.Focusing elementsThere is one more formal aspect of the last example we should make a noteof [ Pobierz caÅ‚ość w formacie PDF ]